FREE ESSAY ON JAPANESE GARDENS

JAPANESE GARDENS

Japanese Gardens
The role of gardens play a much more important role in Japan than here in the United
States. This is due primarily to the fact the Japanese garden embodies native values,
cultural beliefs and religious principles. Perhaps this is why there is no one prototype
for the Japanese garden, just as there is no one native philosophy or aesthetic. In this
way, similar to other forms of Japanese art, landscape design is constantly evolving due
to exposure to outside influences, mainly Chinese, that effect not only changing
aesthetic tastes but also the values of patrons. In observing a Japanese garden, it is
important to remember that the line between the garden and the landscape that surrounds
it is not separate. Instead, the two are forever merged, serving as the total embodiment
of the one another. Every aspect of the landscape is in itself a garden. Also when
observing the garden, the visitor is not supposed to distinguish the garden from its
architecture. Gardens in Japan incorporate both natural and artificial elements, therefor
uniting nature and architecture into one entity. Japanese gardens also express the
ultimate connection between humankind and nature, for these gardens are not only
decorative, but are a clear expression of Japanese culture. 
Although this extremely close connection of the individual with nature, the basic
principle of Japanese gardens, has remained the constant throughout its history, the ways
in which this principle has come to be expressed has undergone many great changes.
Perhaps the most notable occurred in the very distinct periods in Japanese history that
popularized unique forms of garden style-Heian (781-1185), and the Kamakura (1186-1393).
Resulting from these two golden ages of Japanese history came the stroll garden from the
former period and the Zen garden from the later. As we shall see, the composition of
these gardens where remarkably effected by the norms of architecture and the ideals of
popular religion in these eras. Therefor, in understanding each garden style in its
context, it essential to also take into account the social, historical, and theological
elements as well as the main stylist differences.
Japanese aristocrats from at least mid-eighth century customarily had gardens near their
homes. During the Heian period a somewhat standard type of garden evolved in accordance
with the Shinden type of courtier mansion (Bring and Wayembergh, p. 28-29).
Characteristic of the Heian period was its extremely rigid class stratification; life for
the farmers, merchants and artisans consisted of very simplified dwellings in comparison
to those of members of the aristocracy. The architecture "norm" for aristocratic homes
was in the Shinden-zurkuri style, "which was clearly based on the principle that the
individual parts of the building should be merged as much as possible into the garden"
(Yoshida, p.12). The main building, named the Shinden, represented the area reserved for
the master himself, and always opened up to the south side of the garden. There were
corridors, or tai-no-ya, connecting the Shinden to the rest of the buildings in the
complex. There corridors created an enclosure which is where a lake would be placed and
where the stroll garden was erected.
Kinkakuji, also known as the Golden Pavilion (1394), serves as an example of this Shinden
type. The site in northern Kyoto was developed as a large retirement estate by Ashikaga
Yoshimitsu (1358-1409) beginning in 1394. The pavilion itself was sited the edge of a
sprawling palace complex that no longer exists today. This was intended as proof that the
warrior shogunate could contribute to the cultural and aesthetic life of the land to an
extent equal to that of the imperial aristocracy. It has been recorded that the actual
emperor of Japan visited Kinkakuji in 1408, the first time an emperor had ever stayed
with a person that was not a member of the imperial court. The shogun died the year
after. After his death the palace was turned over to the Rinzai sect of Zen Buddhism and
it has remained under its control ever since.
The Golden Pavilion is a three-story viewing and pleasure pavilion constructed on the
edge of a pons as the focal point to a much larger garden on the grounds of the Rokuoni
Temple. The pavilion itself is based on the Chinese Sung style, though each floor has a
somewhat different aesthetic. The first floor was used as a reception room for the guests
and as boarding site for pleasure boating around the small pond. The second story was for
more private parties with an outstanding view of the garden. The third floor was an
intimate space for meeting with confidantes and holding tea ceremony. Originally, only
the ceiling of the pavilion's third floor was guild in gold (hence its name), but in 1950
it was burned down by a student monk (Hayakawa, p. 18). A replica was quickly rebuilt in
its place and is the example that contemporary visitors see.
Equally important to the Shinden as its architecture was the garden itself. Another
complex that contained a stroll garden is referred to as the temple garden. The grounds
surrounding the pavilion lie on four and a half acres, but the use of landscape elements
make its apparent size much bigger. The foreground is filled with small scale rocks and
plantings. The more distant elements blend into the background, visually extending the
garden. Mt. Kinugasa rises in the background. Meanwhile, the shoreline of lake rolls back
and forth, hiding the true size of the small pond and making it appear as much larger
than it truly is (Ito, p.93-98).
"The introduction of a new form of Buddhism, and the symbolism of water color painting
from southern China, had a direct influence on garden design" (Yoshida, p.14). This new
religion, Pure Land Buddhism, was having an increasingly influential effect during the
Heian period. "The garden was seen as a place where beautiful pavilions stood among large
ponds full of lotus flowers. The idea of paradise was central to the whole sect...[also]
the emphasis was on immortality in this paradise and the longevity of life" (Davidson,
p.21). The garden of Kinkakuji is an example of this new fusion. The stroll garden is a
re-creation of a Western paradise with rock gardens created under the Zen spirit.
There is nothing random about the layout of the garden of the Golden Pavilion. Every
aspect has been preconceived and purposely manipulated. Kinkakuji is park-like in size,
maintaining traditional elements such as islands, bridges, and paths. All of these
elements, tough decorative, hold symbolic meanings. The islands "represent a symbol of
longevity and continuing health...and the focal points for a pond" (Davidson, p.36). The
bridges have practical functions such as connecting islands together, though the also
have a special function of creating "alternative viewpoints that may not otherwise exist"
(Davidson, p.37). In addition there were paths laid-out leading the viewer to numerous
points of worship. This element clearly demonstrates how the garden of Kinkakuji is a
combination of both a Heian stroll garden and the Zen aesthetic. The paths and the
miniature rocks representing mountains in China fond along these paths were placed
strategically to guide the viewer along a predetermined stroll, allowing the individual
to experience orchestrated vistas.
The Kamakura period experienced an increase in the popularization of Zen Buddhism, this
was the religion of choice for the shogun or Samurai class. The shogun appreciated the
strict precision of Zen culture in addition to its simplicity and refinement. These
ideals led to the Zen garden. These gardens served a completely different purpose than
their earlier counterparts. "There was a shift back to an emphasis on looking rather than
using. These gardens were used specifically as aids to a deeper understanding of Zen
concepts...these gardens were not an end in themselves...but a trigger to contemplation
and meditation" (Davidson, p.22). Unlike the Golden Pavilion, the Zen gardens were not
meant for viewers to physically interact with, but instead as visual stimulus in the
meditative process-a spiritual aid.
Ryoanji, at the Daiju-in Temple in Kyoto (1488-1499) is one of the most famous and
celebrated gardens in Japan and is an example of the Zen aesthetic. Simply composed of
stone and sand, it serve as a subtle and yet effective example of the dry garden type, or
karesansui. The garden consists of a flat, rectangular surface measuring thirty by
seventy-eight feet. It is located on the south side of the temple. On its north side is
located the long verandah where the visitors appreciate the garden. To its east, the
garden is bounded by a thin low wall. One the southern and western side, a low wall with
thatched roof tile surrounds the rock garden. The wall, originally white in color has
turned into a rusty earthy color, blending well with the rest of the garden. The garden
itself is composed of fifteen stones in five groups, lying on white raked sand (Kincaid,
p. 66-73).
As illustrated above, the arrangement of the rocks leads the viewer's eye from left to
right. The biggest rock makes the group of three in the left. As the big rock slopes to
the right, it leads the viewer's eye to the same direction. The group of five in the back
lies low to elongate the horizon of the viewer, and incorporate the wall as the
dominating horizon in the garden view. In addition, this group of five serves as the
counter-balance to the sweeping rightward movement, as it leans to the left. The viewer's
eyes then meet a second group of five on the right, which continues the composition
leading it to the right. Finally, the group of two in front copies the movement of the
group of five, finisheing the complete movemnt in this garden (Ito, 19).
The result is an asymmetric composition which achieves a certain balance. Rhythm is
achieved in the composition of the garden by arranging the stones in different
alternating heights, creating a sense of movement for the eye. One can realize the
importance of harmony and design of the garden as each stone is carefully placed in their
own positions. Each factor-position, height, and color-is taken into account to create an
environment of harmony.
The use of the dry garden has had a long history in Japan. During the medieval ages, the
Japanese began to experiment in unique and abstract ways with the use of rocks, while
still keeping such traditional features such as the pond, stream, and artificial island.
From this point on, rocks of various shapes and sizes where increasingly used to
represent both natural formations and man-made ones, including mountains, cliffs,
waterfalls, and bridges. Also, sand and white pebbles were used as "water" and therefor,
in some of these old gardens, the pond was eliminated, which had been the central focus
of Japanese gardens for centuries (Kincaid, p.22-23).
In contrast to Kinkakuji, the garden of Ryoanji's function is purely meditative. Unlike
the Golden Pavilion, there is a designated area for viewers to sit and contemplate the
scene before them. In understanding this garden's function one must realize that it
"relies on understatement, simplicity, suggestion and implication...leaving room for the
imagination by providing a starting point" (Davidson, p.23). The design of this dry-rock
garden stands in stark contrast to the elaborate gardens of the Heian period; no longer
do we see an complex landscape complete with lake, winding paths, bridges, islands, trees
and plants. This idea of rigid simplicity, not focusing on elements of elaborately
constructed vistas, but on elements meant to symbolize these landscapes.
The elements used to create this Zen garden are "simple abstractions of nature" (Kincaid,
p.65). The rocks play an essential role in the design of this garden, while maintain two
functions. "They have an intrinsic beauty of their own, and one the other hand, can
represent something altogether larger and more universal" (Davidson, p.38). These rocks
are used to symbolize religious meanings, and also to portray larger structures such as
mountains. These rock formations can also represent islands, while the bed of gravel is
seen as a body of water. Yet one must also note that this is merely just one
interpretation of the garden's meaning and perhaps the most widely accepted.
Another element of this rock garden is the wall that lines one side. It is very old and
weathered over time. The use of this wall to finish this Zen garden compliments it by
bringing in one of the three key Zen aesthetics-wabi. Wabi refers to the poverty or
rusticness; a preference for the old and worn. According to wabi, value is determined in
what is wathered by time as opposed to the new and untouched. The use of this wall in
completion of the garden was perhaps a conscious attempt by its creatures to instill one
of the most important aspects of Zen thought.
Both the Heian stroll garden of Kinkakuji and the Zen garden of Ryoanji express very
different fundamentals in the art of garden design. Whereas the former relies on
synthesized naturalism for religious significance, the latter uses abstraction and
representation to achieve spirituality. In addition, the viewers actual physical
relationship between the two gardens is fundamentally different. While the Shinden stroll
garden invites the viewer to take an active physical role in the garden, walking along
its winding paths and boating along the shores of its lake, the viewer of the Zen garden
is physically removed from the actual garden; restricted to observing it from a specific
verandah. Likewise, the architectual structures of the Heian stroll garden are completely
integrated into the actual garden itself. The Zen garden, on the other hand, the
architecture (single temple) serves as a mere background for the garden and not part of
the whole composition. Despite these differences in presentation, design, and the
relationships between the garden, viewer, and the architecture, the general goal of both
garden types are inherently the same. In the Japanese tradition, these gardens are meant
to function as aids in understanding in one form or another. In addition, both
demonstrate the emphasis on the relationship between humankind and nature-perhaps one of
the most important elements of Japanese art and architecture.
Bibliography
A.K. Davision, The Art of the Zen Gardens. Boston: Houghtom Mifflin, 1983.
Bring, Mitchell, and Wayembergh, Josse. Japanese Gardens-Design and Meaning. McGraw-Hill
series in Landscape and Landscape Architecture. McGraw-Hill, 1981.
Hayakawa, Masao. The Garden Art of Japan. Trans. Richard Gage. Weatherhill.Heibonsha,
1973.
Ito, Teiji. The Japanese Garden-An Approach to Nature. Trans. By Donald Richie. Yale
University Press, 1972.
Kincaid, Mrs. Paul, Japanese Garden and Floral Art. New York: Hearthside Press Inc.,
1966.
Kucke, Loraine. The Art of Japanese Gardens. New York: The John Day Company, 1940.
Yoshida, Tetsuro, Gardens of Japan. New York: Fredrick A. Praeger, 1957.