FREE ESSAY ON SOCIAL DARWINISM IN AMERICAN HISTORY

SOCIAL DARWINISM IN AMERICAN HISTORY

Social Darwinism in American History
Toward the end of the 19th century, the United States entered a period of growth and
industrialisation. An abundance of natural recourses, cheap labour supply, and a
self-sufficient food supply contributed to the industrialisation of the United States.
This time was known as the American Industrial Revolution. Due to the growing prosperity
of the United States, the American people, in general, adopted a heavily opportunistic
and an excessively materialistic view towards life. 
Charles Darwin, a British naturalist, developed a theory of evolution through the process
of natural selection. His ideas were presented to the public through several manuscripts
that he wrote towards the late 19th century. The Origin of the species was one such
manuscript, in which Darwin presented his idea that species evolve from more primitive
species through the process of natural selection. When Charles Darwin's The Origin of
Species reached the United States following its publication in 1859, the reading public
quickly gave it a popular reception. The Americans had observed the disarray over
political issues in the period before and during the Civil War, and had experienced many
hardships later during the Reconstruction in the South. They were now ready to listen to
theories that allowed them to enjoy their great, recently settled continent and the new
industries that sprang up within it. It was during this age of rapid and remarkable
change that Darwin's theories were popularised in the United States. Darwin developed a
theory of evolution through natural selection, in which only the fittest would survive.
Although Charles Darwin himself did not write about social factors such as human
behaviour in society, his theories were open to interpretation. His ideas were moulded
and eventually evolved into a theory known as Social Darwinism. Social Darwinists
believed that people, like animals, compete for survival and those who become rich and
powerful are the 'fittest' while those left behind in the lower classes must necessarily
be "less fit". Social Darwinists came to believe that that human progress depended on
competition. It was believed that "Nature would provide that the best competitors in a
competitive situation would win, and that this process would lead to continuing
improvement" (Hofstadter 6). Darwin's theories on the "Survival of the Fittest",
interpreted as Social Darwinism, were applied by the American people in the context of
their social, economic and political development during the late 19th and early 20th
centuries.
Social Theories
Darwinism exerted a profound effect upon America's social ideology. Darwin's theories
played an important role in the American's usage of eugenics and in the justification of
racial and sexist separateness. Eugenics, the study of human heredity, aimed at
"improving" the human race, proved to be one of the most enduring aspects of Social
Darwinism. Darwin's theory of natural selection had greatly stimulated the study of
heredity. Early eugenicists accepted the identification of the "fit" with the upper
classes and the "unfit" with the lower classes. They contributed the economic
deceleration at the end of the century to the increased immigration from countries of
"inferior" stock. The American Eugenics Society (A.E.S.), founded in 1924, supported the
idea that the wealth and social position of the upper classes was justified by their
superior genetic capabilities. They pushed sterilisation laws and laws that severely
limited immigration into the U.S. from countries that were not racially "pure". Between
1911 and 1930, 24 states passed sterilisation laws aimed at the mentally retarded,
criminals, and the insane ("Eugenics"). William E. Kellicot spoke for the majority when
he stated that " the Eugenicist believes that no other single factor in determining
social conditions and practices approaches in importance that of racial structural
integrity and sanity" (Hofstadter 163). The general belief of those that followed the
A.E.S. was that the United States could only reach its highest potential if the nation
was comprised of the racially pure "American type" (Hofstadter 163).
The interpretation of Darwin's theory of the "survival of the fittest" not only justified
views on eugenics, but also on racist and sexist ideas. The American Eugenics Society
urged the passing of laws that restricted marriages between different racial groups. The
United States was made up of a people long familiar with Indian warfare and southern
slavery. These experiences had been grounded in views of racial superiority. In a nation
where the whites and blacks were "separate but equal", the Social Darwinists' ideas
served to justify their separateness. The ideas demonstrated that because there were
physical differences between the blacks and the whites and since the whites were in
control of the nation, the whites were the fittest of the two races, and were thereby
justified in their leadership. Although Darwinism was not the primary source of the
racism in the United States, it was used as an instrument in the hands of those who
sought to justify a policy of separateness. The blacks were seen as racially inferior and
remained separate in their jobs and schools. The American Indians were seen as lesser
people than the Americans were because they were not "civilised" by western standards.
Their land was exploited and they were treated as a simple annoyance that had to be dealt
with during the expansion of the west. Congress passed the Dawes Severalty Act of 1887 in
an attempt to protect the American Indians during the time that it took them to "adopt
the habits of civilised life" (Dawes Severalty Act of 1887). This act failed of course,
because an entire culture grounded in tradition could not be changed by an enactment by
Congress. The feeling that the American Indians were lesser people originated from
colonial times in America. Social Darwinism gave the American people a means by which to
justifying these feelings. 
Separateness between men and women was also justified by Darwinist ideas. In his writings
Darwin noted, "The female is less eager than the male" (B.Ke). He eventually concluded
that males were more evolved than women. The American men used this to justify a woman's
inferior place in society. In spite of the crucial role that women played in human
evolution with their ability to give birth, they were viewed by men as intellectually
inferior. Men used the idea that because women were physically different and had an
inferior role in society, men were thus justified in their rule over women. Consequently,
racist and sexist social separateness in the U.S. influenced economic factors, resulting
in the white men dominating the business life of the country.
Economic Implications
In addition to Darwin's influence on the social issues in the United States,
economically, Social Darwinism buttressed the views of those who wished to defend the
laissez-faire system. These individuals believed in an economic system in which a few
individuals, rather than the government, make the majority of the decisions. One of the
most influential Social Darwinists in America was Professor William Graham Sumner of
Yale. He spread is views through widely read books and articles and "converted his
strategic teaching post in New Haven into a kind of Social Darwinian Pulpit"(Hofstadter
51). He believed in the success of the capitalist society in which he lived to be a
"fulfilment of the classical ideal of Free competitive order" (Hofstadter 52). He is
quoted as saying:
"Let it be understood that we cannot go outside of this alternative: liberty, inequality,
survival of the fittest; not-liberty, equality, survival of the unfittest. The former
carries society forwards and favours all its best members; the latter carries society
downwards and favours all its worst members"(Hofstadter 51)
His statement embodies the belief that, in business, it is inevitable that the "fittest"
will survive if left to push themselves without restrictions. Sumner stressed that a
laissez-faire system in economics would be in the best interest of both the rich and the
poor. Andrew Carnegie, a successful businessman, also preached this idea. In his article
entitled "Wealth", he expresses his strong beliefs in Social Darwinism as "not only
beneficial, but essential for the future progress of the [human] race..." (Carnegie 1).
Carnegie explained that in the great scheme of things it would be beneficial for both the
rich and the poor if the majority of a nation's wealth were to accumulate in the hands of
a few successful "superior" men. His argument was that only the intellectually superior
could possibly know how to distribute wealth wisely and only these individuals could
reach the top of society, both economically and socially. If the world was left to the
laissez-faire system, the inevitable triumph of the "superior" race would come about
faster and would benefit the "inferior" race through the circulation of greater wealth.
Carnegie stated that, "individualism, Private Property, the Law of Accumulation of
wealth, and the Law of Competition... are the highest results of human experience",
reaffirming his belief in the evolution and progression of human civilisation (Carnegie
p.3). Carnegie, Sumner, and many other influential men in America stressed the idea that
domination by the fittest is of the greatest benefit to society as a whole. The views of
Social Darwinists were used to justify the accumulation of wealth within the hands of a
few that were believed to be intellectually superior.
Political Issues
The capitalistic views influenced by Social Darwinism not only affected the handful of
rich business owners, but also affected the minds of the working class. Although the
working class felt threatened by these large businesses, they also strove harder to
become a part of the upper class. The working class was, in a sense, inspired by the
capitalistic minds of the wealthy. The government did little to stop the large
corporations from growing and devouring one another. A series of weak presidents occupied
the White House such as Andrew Johnson, who was nearly thrown out of office due to his
failure to compromise with Congress, and Ulysses S. Grant, who did nothing to prevent the
scandals that disgraced his administration. There was also an imbalance between the
control of the Senate and that of the House of Representatives within Congress. The House
of Representatives was inefficient and disorderly and, as a result, they seemed to
encounter severe difficulty in accomplishing everyday situations. The Senate, on the
other hand, was seen as orderly, intelligent and therefore superior to the House of
Representatives. The Senate was also generally comprised of wealthy white men who derived
their wealth from capitalistic corporations such as banking. Consequentially, the power
of the United States government favoured free trade and the general wealth of the country
was left in the hands of a few businessmen. Questions of state and local importance were
to determine who controlled the federal government.
The influence of Social Darwinism led the American people to believe in a free enterprise
economy. The large businesses dominated the smaller businesses because they were able to
sell products to the public at much lower prices. The Government of the United States
helped these large corporations to grow. They shielded them from foreign competitors by
placing taxes on imports. The government also protected these large corporations from
domestic competition by enacting certain revenue taxes that forced small competitors to
pay more taxes than large competitors. The railroads contributed to transfer of wealth to
the larger corporations by carrying larger corporations products at cheaper rates than
their smaller competitors.
Later, due to a shift in public opinion, the government passed acts that were designed to
handicap the large companies, eliminate monopolies, and restore competition.
Unfortunately, these laws were rarely enforced. For example, the 1890 Sherman Anti-Trust
Act declared illegal "every contract, combination in the form of trust or otherwise, or
conspiracy, in restraint of trade or commerce among the several States, or with foreign
nations" (1890 Sherman Trust Act). The act was meant to regulate operations of corporate
trusts. The act was worded vaguely and consequently, many of the large corporations were
able to work around it. Over the following 10 years, only 18 cases were prosecuted under
the act.
Darwin's theory of Natural Selection may have worked as a concept involving animals, but
when applied to the social world it ultimately resulted in an imbalance. Socially, the
American people used Darwin's ideas in order to justify their racist and sexist feelings.
Economically, Darwin's ideas were used by those who wished to justify capitalism. The
United States Government was weak and chose not to take control of the increasing
excesses. Excesses of Social Darwinism later resulted in economic collapse and a
dislocation of large numbers of the American people. In reaction to these events, the
United States Government passed laws attempting to create a better balance between the
interests of large and small businesses and between business and labour, and to eliminate
other social inequalities. Although Social Darwinism encouraged the economic growth of
the United States at a time when this growth was needed and allowed people to create new
inventions, it also resulted in the Great Depression. It led to excesses that needed to
be corrected if the country was to progress over the long term and if the democratic
ideals of individual freedom and equality were to be upheld. 
(2,180 words)